Research Article

Gamification, Online Learning and Motivation: A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis in Higher Education

Milagros Torrado Cespón 1 * , José María Díaz Lage 2
More Detail
1 Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, La Rioja, SPAIN2 Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, SPAIN* Corresponding Author
Contemporary Educational Technology, 14(4), October 2022, ep381, https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/12297
Published: 31 July 2022
OPEN ACCESS   4485 Views   4055 Downloads
Download Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

As a motivational teaching practice, gamification does not always work as expected. This paper supports these findings and adds the factor of online teaching analyzing the results of an experiment carried out in an online higher education context to test the relevance and motivational efficacy of ludic methodologies using learning and knowledge technology. Three groups of students (n=78, n=64, and n=74) participated in gamified experiences in the same subject. These groups were offered different approaches to the experiences, only one of which included a reward. Neither of the gamified experiences was compulsory. The results show how the use of technologies and gamification is not as appealing as it may seem and how other aspects—such as teacher-student relationship and interaction, rewards, and the sense of alienation generated by online teaching—influence student participation. The low rate of participation indicates that teachers must consider not only those students who participate but also those who do not. The main conclusion is that not only the methodology is important, but also the performance and the fact that student-teacher relationship in online education is more demanding, affectively speaking. Thus, those students who were in direct contact with the teacher during the execution of the gamified experience present a higher level of involvement. This is a factor to consider for the motivational needs of online university students where intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and direct interaction play essential roles.
Keywords: gamification, motivation, interaction, higher education, e-learning, alienation

CITATION (APA)

Torrado Cespón, M., & Díaz Lage, J. M. (2022). Gamification, Online Learning and Motivation: A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis in Higher Education. Contemporary Educational Technology, 14(4), ep381. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/12297

REFERENCES

  1. Alonso-García, S., Aznar-Díaz, I., Cáceres-Reche, M. P., Trujillo-Torres, J. M., & Romero-Rodríguez, J. M. (2019). Systematic review of good teaching practices with ICT in Spanish higher education. Trends and challenges for sustainability. Sustainability, 11(24), 7150. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11247150
  2. Ávila Muñoz, A. M., & Santos Díaz, I. C. (2019). Observación de la brecha tecnológica generacional desde el prisma de la disponibilidad léxica [Observing the generational technological gap from the perspective of lexical availability]. Ogigia, Revista Electrónica de Estudios Hispánicos [Ogigia, Electronic Journal of Hispanic Studies], 25, 259-292. https://doi.org/10.24197/ogigia.25.2019.259-292
  3. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making learning fun: Quest Atlantis, a game without guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53, 86-107. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504859
  4. Baron, N. S. (2017). Reading in a digital age. Phi Delta Kappan, 99(2), 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721717734184
  5. Baron, N. S. (2021). Know what? How digital technologies undermine learning and remembering. Journal of Pragmatics, 175(1), 27-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.01.011
  6. Buckley, P., & Doyle, E. (2014). Gamification and student motivation. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(6), 1162-1175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.964263
  7. Busquet i Duran, J., Munté Ramos, R. A., & Garrido Lora, M. (2016). From ICT to ICRT. A study of ICT use and the digital divide among adults and adolescents in Spain. Anàlisi. Quaderns de Comunicació i Cultura [Analysis. Communication and Culture Notebooks], 54, 44-57. https://doi.org/10.7238/a.v0i54.2953
  8. Cabero, J., & Ruiz-Palmero, J. (2018). Las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación para la inclusión: Reformulando la brecha digital [Information and communication technologies for inclusion: Reformulating the digital divide]. International Journal of Educational Research and Innovation, 9, 16-30. https://www.upo.es/revistas/index.php/IJERI/article/view/2665/2222
  9. Cameron, J., Pierce, W. D., Banko, K. M., & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic Motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 641-655. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.641
  10. Campillo-Ferrer, J. M., Miralles-Martínez, P., & Sánchez-Ibáñez, R. (2020). Gamification in higher education: Impact on student motivation and the acquisition of social and civic key competencies. Sustainability, 12(12), 4822. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124822
  11. Castillo Rodríguez, C. & Torrado Cespón, M. (2020) Follow the path: A learning proposal for the EFL flipped classroom. H2D. Digital Humanities Journal, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.21814/h2d.2539
  12. Chyr, W.-L., Shen, P.-D., Chiang, Y.-C., Lin, J.-B., & Tsai, C.-W. (2017). Exploring the effects of online academic help-seeking and flipped learning on improving students’ learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20(3), 11-23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26196116
  13. Cilliers, E. J. (2017). The challenge of teaching Generation Z. People: International Journal of Social Sciences, 3(1), 370-377. https://doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2017.31.188198
  14. Connolly, T. M., Boyle, E. A., MacArthur, E., Hainey, T., & Boyle, J. M. (2012). A systematic review of empirical evidence on computer games and serious games. Computers and Education, 59(2), 661-686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.004
  15. Cox, M. J. (2014). Motivating pupils through the use of ICT. In M. Leask, & N. Pachler (Eds.), Learning to teach using ICT in the secondary school: A companion to school experience (pp. 19-35). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203212301-2
  16. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018) Designing and conducting mixed methods research. SAGE.
  17. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
  18. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research 71(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071001001
  19. Deterding, S., Khaled, R., Nacke, L. E., & Dixon, D. (2011). Gamification: Toward a definition. In D. Tan (Chair), ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Vancouver, Canada. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sebastian-Deterding/publication/303018696_Gamification_Toward_a_definition/links/595f6ff5458515a357a62497/Gamification-Toward-a-definition.pdf
  20. Dickey, M. (2004). The impact of web-logs (blogs) on student perceptions of isolation and alienation in a web-based distance-learning environment, Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 19(3), 279-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/0268051042000280138
  21. Dimock, M. (2019). Defining generations: Where millennials end and generation Z begins. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/
  22. Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273-284. https://doi.org/10.2307/330107
  23. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667343
  24. Faiella, D., & Ricciardi, M. (2015). Gamification and learning: A review of issues and research. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 11(3), 13-21. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1072
  25. Ferrer, J., Ringer, A., Saville, K., Parris, M. A., & Kashi, K. (2022). Students’ motivation and engagement in higher education: the importance of attitude to online learning. Higher Education, 83(2), 317-338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00657-5
  26. Firth, J., Torous, J., Stubbs, B., Firth, J.A., Steiner, G. Z., Smith, L., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Gleeson, J., Vancampfort, D., Armitage, C. J., & Sarris, J. (2019) The “online brain”: How the Internet may be changing our cognition. World Psychiatry, 18(2), 1129-129. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20617
  27. García-Peñalvo, F. J. (2020). Reference model for virtual education at face-to-face universities. Campus Virtuales, 9(1), 41-56.
  28. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2), 87-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6
  29. Guckian, J., Sridhar, A., & Meggitt, S. J. (2020). Exploring the perspectives of dermatology undergraduates with an escape room game. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology, 45(2), 153-158. https://doi.org/10.1111/ced.14039
  30. Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. (2014). Does gamification work?—A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. In Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Hawaii, USA. https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2014.377
  31. Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort and academic performance. Computers and Education, 80, 152-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.019
  32. Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S. (2005) Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 17277-17288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
  33. Johnson, G. M. (2005). Student alienation, academic achievement, and WebCT use. Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 179-189. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1lujdOJWiMCCZZlH_HUnQ2UTnl9ZiVpRo/view
  34. Kinio, A. E., Dufresne, E., Brandys, T., & Jetty, P. (2021). Break out of the classroom: The use of escape rooms as an alternative teaching strategy in surgical education. Journal of Surgical Education, 76(1), 134-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2018.06.030
  35. König, J., Jäger-Biela, D. J., & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1809650
  36. Kuvaas, B., Buch, R., Weibel, A., Dysvik, A., & Nerstad, C. G. L. (2017). Do intrinsic and extrinsic motivation relate differently to employee outcomes? Journal of Economic Psychology, 61, 244-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2017.05.004
  37. Lazzaro, N. (2004) Why we play games: Four keys to more emotion without story. XEODesign.
  38. Lei, S. A. (2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Evaluating benefits and drawbacks from college instructors’ perspectives. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(2), 153-160.
  39. Lemos, M. S., & Veríssimo, L. (2014). The relationships between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and achievement, along elementary school. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 117, 930-938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1251
  40. Livingstone, S. (2011). Critical reflections on the benefits of ICT in education. Oxford Review of Education, 38(1), 9-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2011.577938
  41. Llorca Abad, G. (2015). Audio-visual transmedia content and new users’ behaviour. Obra Digital, 8, 136-154. https://doi.org/10.25029/od.2015.51.8
  42. Locke, E. A., & Schattke, K. (2019) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Time for expansion and clarification. Motivation Science, 5(4), 277-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000116
  43. Ma, J., Han, X., Yang, J., & Cheng, J. (2015). Examining the necessary condition for engagement in an online learning environment based on learning analytics approach: The role of the instructor. The Internet and Higher Education, 24, 26-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2014.09.005
  44. Mandernach, B. J., Robertson, S. N., & Steele, J. P. (2018). Beyond content: The value of instructor-student connections in the online classroom. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 18(4), 130-150. https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v18i4.23430
  45. Mann, S. J. (2005). Alienation in the learning environment: A failure of community? Studies in Higher Education, 30(1), 43-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/0307507052000307786
  46. Manoharan, S. R., Hua, T. K., & Sultan, F. M. M. (2022). A comparison of online learning challenges between young learners and adult learners in ESL classes during the COVID-19 pandemic: A critical review. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 12(1), 28-35. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1201.04
  47. Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Opwis, K., & Tuch, A. N. (2013). Do points, levels and leaderboards harm intrinsic motivation? An empirical analysis of common gamification elements. In Gamification ‘13: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Gameful Design, Research, and Applications (pp. 66-73). https://doi.org/10.1145/2583008.2583017
  48. Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Tuch, A. N., & Opwis, K. (2017). Towards understanding the effects of individual gamification elements on intrinsic motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 525-534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.048
  49. Mollick, E., & Rothbard, N. (2014). Mandatory fun: Consent, gamification and the impact of games at work. The Wharton School Research Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2277103
  50. Moreno Fuentes, E. (2019). Breakout EDU as key element in gamification experiences carried out on pre-service teaching degrees. Edutec. Revista Electrónica de Tecnología Educativa [Edutec. Electronic Magazine of Educational Technology], 67, 66-79. https://doi.org/10.21556/edutec.2018.66.1247
  51. Moreno-Ger, P., Burgos, D., Martínez Ortiz, I., Sierra, J. L., & Fernández Manjón, B. (2008) Educational game design for online education. Computers in Human Behaviour, 24, 2530-2540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.012
  52. Morgan, C. K., & Tam, M. (1999). Unraveling the complexities of distance education student attrition. Distance Education, 20(1), 96-108. https://doi.org/10.1080/0158791990200108
  53. Navarro-Mateos, C., Pérez-López, I. J., & Femia Marzo, P. (2021). Gamification in the Spanish educational field: A systematic review. Retos, 42, 507-516. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v42i0.87384
  54. Negre, C. (2017). ‘BreakoutEdu’, microgamificación y aprendizaje significativo [‘BreakoutEdu’, microgamification and meaningful learning]. https://www.educaweb.com/noticia/2017/07/26/breakoutedu-microgamificacion-aprendizaje-significativo-15068/
  55. Ortega Arranz, A., Bote Lorenzo, M., Asensio Pérez, J., Martínez Monés, A., Gómez Sánchez, E., & Dimitriadi, Y. (2019). To reward and beyond: Analyzing the effect of reward-based strategies in a MOOC. Computers and Education, 142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103639
  56. Parra-González, M. E., & Segura-Robles, A. (2019). Scientific production on gamification in education: A scientometric analysis. Revista de Educación [Education Magazine], 386, 109-131. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2019-386-429
  57. Pennucci, S. S. (2020). Flip it and break it. Using flipped lessons and breakouts to energize learning. Philadelphia Libraries: Research and Practice, 8(2), 115-123. https://doi.org/10.5195/palrap.2020.220
  58. Peters, D., Calvo, R. A., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Designing for motivation, engagement and wellbeing in digital experience. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00797
  59. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants, Part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120110424816
  60. Rasheed, A. R., Kamsin, A., & Abdullah, N. A. (2020). Challenges in the online component of blended learning: A systematic review. Computers and Education, 144, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103701
  61. Rosch, D. M., & Schwartz, L. M. (2009). Potential issues and pitfalls in outcomes assessment in leadership education. Journal of Leadership Education, 8(1), 177-194. https://doi.org/10.12806/V8/I1/IB5
  62. Rovai, A. P., & Wighting, M. J. (2005). Feelings of alienation and community among higher education students in a virtual classroom. The Internet and Higher Education, 8(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2005.03.001
  63. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
  64. Schuman, B. F. (2021). What does success in online teaching look like? Teaching Philosophy, 44(3), 339-367. https://doi.org/10.5840/teachphil202132140
  65. Symeonides, R., & Childs, C. (2015). The personal experience of online learning: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 51(A), 539-545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.015
  66. Teixes, F. (2014). Gamificación: Fundamentos y aplicaciones [Gamification: Fundamentals and applications]. UOC.
  67. Tichavsky, L. P., Hunt, A. N., Driscoll, A., & Jicha, K. (2015). “It’s just nice having a real teacher”: Student perceptions of online versus face-to-face instruction. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 9(2), 2. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2015.090202
  68. Torrado Cespón, M. (2021). TIC/TAC y COVID-19: Uso y necesidades del profesorado de secundaria en Galicia [ICT/TAC and COVID-19: Use and needs of secondary school teachers in Galicia]. Digital Education Review, 39, 356-373. https://doi.org/10.1344/der.2021.39.356-373
  69. Turner, A. (2015). Generation Z: Technology and social interest. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 71(2), 103-113. https://doi.org/10.1353/jip.2015.0021
  70. Urban, K., & Jirsáková, J. (2021). Motivation and personally traits in adult learners. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 28(1), 151-166. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211000361
  71. Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Senecal, C., & Vallieres, E. F. (1992). The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 1003-1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052004025
  72. Van Deursen, A. (2007). Where to go in the near future: Diverging perspectives on online public service delivery. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 4656, 143-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74444-3_13
  73. Wei, C. W., Chen, N. S. & Kinshuk (2012). A model for social presence in online classrooms. Educational Technology Research and Development, 60, 529-545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-012-9234-9
  74. Westera, W. (2015). Games are motivating, aren’t they? Disputing the arguments for digital game-based learning. International Journal of Serious Games, 2(2), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v2i2.58
  75. Zembylas, M. (2008). Adult learners’ emotions in online learning. Distance Education, 29(1), 71-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587910802004852