Research Article

Seeking the optimal SPOC-based blended learning approach to enhance deep learning from the community of inquiry perspective

Rongrong Huang 1 2 , Nagaletchimee Annamalai 1 3 *
More Detail
1 School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA2 Chengdu Aeronautic Polytechnic, Chengdu, Sichaun, CHINA3 Humanities and Social Sciences Research Center, Ajman University, Ajman, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES* Corresponding Author
Contemporary Educational Technology, 16(4), October 2024, ep537, https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/15574
Published: 05 November 2024
OPEN ACCESS   427 Views   262 Downloads
Download Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

To equip students with 21st century skills to be competent global citizens and succeed academically and professionally, information and communication technology tools are being utilized to facilitate deep learning in higher education. This study integrated a small private online course (SPOC) with face-to-face (F2F) classroom learning to design and implement a blended English as a foreign language (EFL) course for deep learning. A mixed-method design was employed to investigate the learning experiences and perceptions of EFL students in the SPOC-based blended learning (BL) environment. The primary objective was to examine whether and how the teaching, social and cognitive presences were established from the perspective of the community of inquiry (CoI) model. Participants were 60 students enrolled in an eight-week English communicative course in a Chinese college. Quantitative data was obtained from the CoI and BL surveys, while qualitative data was gathered through individual interviews with 10 students. The results showed that a CoI was established, and deep learning happened in both SPOC and F2F learning areas with a more salient teaching presence in the SPOC area, a stronger social presence and a higher frequency of resolution phase reached in the F2F area. Furthermore, learners expressed satisfaction with the BL course, perceiving it as effective for English language acquisition. Pedagogical implications were offered to assist educators and institutions in optimizing the use of SPOC-based BL to enhance deep learning.
Keywords: SPOC, deep learning, blended learning, EFL learning, community of inquiry

CITATION (APA)

Huang, R., & Annamalai, N. (2024). Seeking the optimal SPOC-based blended learning approach to enhance deep learning from the community of inquiry perspective. Contemporary Educational Technology, 16(4), ep537. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/15574

REFERENCES

  1. Akyol, Z., & Garrison, D. R. (2008). The development of a community of inquiry over time in an online course: Understanding the progression and integration of social, cognitive and teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 12, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v12i3.72
  2. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
  3. Anderson, T., Liam, R., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. https://auspace.athabascau.ca/handle/2149/725
  4. Annamalai, N., Mangaleswaran, S., Ab Rashid, R., Harb Alqaryouti, M., & Sadeq, A. E. (2024). Learner experiences of community of inquiry mode (CoI) in WhatsApp for English language learning. Sage Open, 14(2), Article 21582440241251944. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241251944
  5. Arbaugh, J. B., Cleveland-Innes, M., Diaz, S. R., Garrison, D. R., Ice, P., Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. P. (2008). Developing a community of inquiry instrument: Testing a measure of the community of inquiry framework using a multi-institutional sample. The Internet and Higher Education, 11(3–4), 133–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.06.003
  6. Barell, J., Darling-Hammond, L., Dede, C., DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Fisher, D., Fogarty, R. J., Frey, N., Gardner, H., Hargreaves, A., Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Kay, K., Lemke, C., McTighe, J., November, A., Pearlman, B., Pete, B. M., Reeves, D., …, & Seif, E. (2010). 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn. Solution Tree.
  7. Bowers, J., & Kumar, P. (2015). Students’ perceptions of teaching and social presence: A comparative analysis of face-to-face and online learning environments. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 10(1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijwltt.2015010103
  8. Chen, P.-S. D., Lambert, A. D., & Guidry, K. R. (2010). Engaging online learners: The impact of Web-based learning technology on college student engagement. Computers & Education, 54(4), 1222–1232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.008
  9. Cheng, A., & Wang, Q. (2012). English language teaching in higher education in China: A historical and social overview. In J. Ruan, & C. B. Leung (Eds.), Perspectives on teaching and learning English literacy in China (pp. 19–33). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4994-8_2
  10. Cleveland-Innes, M. (2019). The community of inquiry theoretical framework: Designing collaborative online and blended learning. In H. Beetham (Ed.), Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351252805-6
  11. Dai, L., & Sihes, A. J. B. (2023). Deep learning in EFL education in China: Definition and dimensions. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(11). https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i11/19750
  12. Daniel, S. J. (2020). Education and the COVID-19 pandemic. Prospects, 49(1–2), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09464-3
  13. Davitishvili, N. (2017). Cross-cultural awareness and teaching English as a second language in the context of globalization. Sino-US English Teaching, 14(9), 549–558. https://doi.org/10.17265/1539-8072/2017.09.003
  14. Di, W., Danxia, X., & Chun, L. (2019). The effects of learner factors on higher-order thinking in the smart classroom environment. Journal of Computers in Education, 6(4), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-019-00146-4
  15. Du, M., & Qian, Y. (2022). Application of massive open online course to grammar teaching for English majors based on deep learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.755043
  16. Dvoráková, K., Emmer, J., Janktová, R., & Klementová, K. (2021). From F2F to ERT: University students’ perception of remote learning during the first COVID-19 lockdown. Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, 14(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2021.140203
  17. Erdoğan, V. (2019). Integrating 4C skills of the 21st century into 4 language skills in EFL classes. International Journal of Education and Research, 7(11), 113–124.
  18. Ertmer, P. A., Richardson, J. C., Belland, B., Camin, D., Connolly, P., Coulthard, G., Lei, K., & Mong, C. (2007). Using peer feedback to enhance the quality of student online postings: An exploratory study. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(2), 412–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00331.x
  19. Filius, R. M., de Kleijn, R. A. M., Uijl, S. G., Prins, F. J., van Rijen, H. V. M., & Grobbee, D. E. (2018a). Challenges concerning deep learning in SPOCs. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 10(1–2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTEL.2018.088341
  20. Filius, R. M., de Kleijn, R. A. M., Uijl, S. G., Prins, F. J., van Rijen, H. V. M., & Grobbee, D. E. (2018b). Strengthening dialogic peer feedback aiming for deep learning in SPOCs. Computers &d Education, 125, 86–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.06.004
  21. Fox, A. (2013). From MOOCs to SPOCs. Communications of the ACM, 56(12), 38–40. https://doi.org/10.1145/2535918
  22. Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410–8415. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111
  23. Fu, J. (2013). Complexity of ICT in education: A critical literature review and its implications. International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT, 9(1), 112–125. http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=1541
  24. Galikyan, I., & Admiraal, W. (2019). Students’ engagement in asynchronous online discussion: The relationship between cognitive presence, learner prominence, and academic performance. The Internet and Higher Education, 43, Article 100692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100692
  25. Garrison, D. R. (2015). Thinking collaboratively: Learning in a community of inquiry. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315740751
  26. Garrison, D. R. (2017). E-learning in the 21st century: A community of inquiry framework for research and practice. Taylor & Francis Group.
  27. Garrison, D. R., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). Researching the community of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future directions. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(3), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.04.001
  28. Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: Interaction is not enough. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15389286ajde1903_2
  29. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001
  30. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6
  31. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking and computer conferencing: A model and tool to assess cognitive presence. https://auspace.athabascau.ca/handle/2149/740
  32. Gašević, D., Adesope, O., Joksimović, S., & Kovanović, V. (2015). Externally-facilitated regulation scaffolding and role assignment to develop cognitive presence in asynchronous online discussions. The Internet and Higher Education, 24, 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2014.09.006
  33. Gilboy, M. B., Heinerichs, S., & Pazzaglia, G. (2015). Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 47(1), 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2014.08.008
  34. Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In C. J. Bonk, & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3–21). Pfeiffer Publishing.
  35. Gunawardena, C. N., & Zittle, F. J. (1997). Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment. American Journal of Distance Education, 11(3), 8–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923649709526970
  36. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
  37. Heale, R., & Twycross, A. (2018). What is a case study? Evidence-Based Nursing, 21(1), 7–8. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845
  38. Jenkins, J. (2019). English medium instruction in higher education: The role of English as Lingua Franca. In X. Gao (Ed.), Second handbook of English language teaching (pp. 91–108). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02899-2_7
  39. Jia, Y., & Zhang, L. (2021). Research and application of online SPOC teaching mode in analog circuit course. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18(1), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00247-0
  40. Jiang, R. (2022). Understanding, Investigating, and promoting deep learning in language education: A survey on Chinese college students’ deep learning in the online EFL teaching context. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.955565
  41. Johansson, R. (2007). On case study methodology. Open House International, 32(3), 48–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/OHI-03-2007-B0006
  42. Junco, R., & Cotten, S. R. (2012). No A 4 U: The relationship between multitasking and academic performance. Computers & Education, 59(2), 505–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.023
  43. Kaczkó, É., & Ostendorf, A. (2023). Critical thinking in the community of inquiry framework: An analysis of the theoretical model and cognitive presence coding schemes. Computers & Education, 193, Article 104662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104662
  44. Kilis, S., & Yildirim, Z. (2019). Posting patterns of students’ social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching presence in online learning. Online Learning, 23(2). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i2.1460
  45. Kozan, K., & Caskurlu, S. (2018). On the Nth presence for the community of inquiry framework. Computers & Education, 122, 104–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.03.010
  46. Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2
  47. Lam, J. Y. (2015). Autonomy presence in the extended community of inquiry. International Journal of Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning, 8(1), 39–61. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.705821081676347
  48. le Roux, I., & Nagel, L. (2018). Seeking the best blend for deep learning in a flipped classroom-viewing student perceptions through the community of inquiry lens. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0098-x
  49. Lee, J., & Choi, H. (2017). What affects learner’s higher-order thinking in technology-enhanced learning environments? The effects of learner factors. Computers & Education, 115, 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.015
  50. Li, F. (2020). Dǎoxiàng shēndù xuéxí: Gāoxiào kètáng jiàoxué gǎigé de lùjìng [Guided deep learning: A path to classroom teaching reform in higher education]. Modern Education Management, 3, 97–102.
  51. López-Pérez, M. V., Pérez-López, M. C., & Rodríguez-Ariza, L. (2011). Blended learning in higher education: Students’ perceptions and their relation to outcomes. Computers & Education, 56(3), 818–826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.023
  52. Lu, H. (2018). Construction of SPOC-based learning model and its application in linguistics teaching. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 13(02), 157–169. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v13i02.7929
  53. Ma, Z., Wang, J., Wang, Q., Kong, L., Wu, Y., & Yang, H. (2017). Verifying causal relationships among the presences of the Community of Inquiry framework in the Chinese context. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(6), 213–230. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i6.3197
  54. Marcus, S. (2006). Measure by measure: How WBT can help create a social online presence. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 23(2), 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1108/10650740610654447
  55. Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning: I. Outcome and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02980.x
  56. Meyer, K. A. (2003). Face-to-face versus threaded discussions: The role of time and higher-order thinking. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(3), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v7i3.1845
  57. Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G. C., & Guarino, A. J. (2013). Performing data analysis using IBM SPSS. John Wiley & Sons.
  58. Mutezo, A. T., & Maré, S. (2023). Teaching and cognitive presences: The mediating effect of social presence in a developing world context. Cogent Education, 10(1), Article 2171176. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2171176
  59. Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572090
  60. Pardede, P. (2020). Integrating the 4Cs into EFL integrated skills learning. Journal of English Teaching, 6(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v6i1.190
  61. Pegrum, M., Bartle, E., & Longnecker, N. (2015). Can creative podcasting promote deep learning? The use of podcasting for learning content in an undergraduate science unit. British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(1), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12133
  62. Ramsden, P., & Ramsden, P. (1991). Learning to teach in higher education (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203507711
  63. Redstone, A., Stefaniak, J., & Luo, T. (2018). Measuring presence: A review of research using the community of inquiry instrument. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 19(2). https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/distancelearning_pubs/6
  64. Rourke, L. (2001). Assessing social presence in asynchronous text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(2), 50–71. Athabasca University Press. Retrieved June 1, 2024 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/92000/
  65. Sandelowski, M. (1996). One is the liveliest number: The case orientation of qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health, 19(6), 525–529. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199612)19:6<525::AID-NUR8>3.0.CO;2-Q
  66. Shea, P., & Bidjerano, T. (2010). Learning presence: Towards a theory of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and the development of a communities of inquiry in online and blended learning environments. Computers & Education, 55(4), 1721–1731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.017
  67. Smith, T. W., & Colby, S. A. (2007). Teaching for deep learning. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 80(5), 205–210. https://doi.org/10.3200/TCHS.80.5.205-210
  68. Stenbom, S., Jansson, M., & Hulkko, A. (2016). Revising the community of inquiry framework for the analysis of one-to-one online learning relationships. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(3), 36–53. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2068
  69. Su, H. (2021). Innovation research on foreign language teaching theory with Chinese characteristics based on Whitehead’s process philosophy. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 6(1), Article 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-021-00123-4
  70. Swan, K., Garrison, D. R., & Richardson, J. C. (2009). A constructivist approach to online learning: The community of inquiry framework. In C. R. Payne (Ed.), Information technology and constructivism in higher education: Progressive learning frameworks (pp. 43–57). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-654-9.ch004
  71. Szeto, E. (2015). Community of inquiry as an instructional approach: What effects of teaching, social and cognitive presences are there in blended synchronous learning and teaching? Computers & Education, 81, 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.015
  72. Tian, R., Xiong, Y., & Romuald, N. (2020). Yìqíng zhī xià quánqiú jiào yǔ xué miànlín de tiǎozhàn yǔ yìngduì zhī cè–OECD”2020 yìngduì COVID-19 jiàoyù zhǐnán” jiěxī yǔ sīkǎo [Challenges and responses to global teaching and learning in the face of the epidemic–Analysis and reflections on OECD’s 2020 guidelines for education in response to COVID-19]. Journal of Distance Education, 38(04), 3–14.
  73. Tochon, F. V., Karaman, A. C., & Ökten, C. E. (2014). Online instructional personal environment for deep language learning. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching, 1(2). http://iojet.org/index.php/IOJET/article/view/32/52
  74. Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. (1991). Improving the quality of student learning: The influence of learning context and student approaches to learning on learning outcomes. Higher Education, 22(3), 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00132290
  75. UCF & AASCU. (2017). Survey instruments. University of Central Florida. https://blended.online.ucf.edu/2011/06/07/survey-instruments/
  76. Vaughan, N., & Garrison, D. R. (2005). Creating cognitive presence in a blended faculty development community. The Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.11.001
  77. Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23(1), 3–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365096023001001
  78. Wang, Q., & Woo, H. L. (2007). Comparing asynchronous online discussions and face-to-face discussions in a classroom setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(2), 272–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00621.x
  79. Wang, X. (2009). Second language theories and their influences on EFL in China. English Language Teaching, 2(4), 149–153. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v2n4p149
  80. Wang, Y., Fang, W.-C., Han, J., & Chen, N.-S. (2016). Exploring the affordances of WeChat for facilitating teaching, social and cognitive presence in semi-synchronous language exchange. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 32(4), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2640
  81. Wei, L., Lin, H.-H., & Litton, F. (2018). Communicative language teaching (CLT) in EFL context in Asia. Asian Culture and History, 10(2), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.5539/ach.v10n2p1
  82. Wen, Z., & Li, L. (2021). A study on the application of SPOC-based blended oral English teaching in higher vocational colleges. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Educational and Information Technology (pp. 15–18). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEIT51700.2021.9375595
  83. Wu, R. (2017). A study on SPOC assisted college oral English teaching strategies. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 7(9), Article 756. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0709.07
  84. Xu, X., Zhang, C., & Jiang, W. (2020). Cóng yìngduì yìqíng wéijī tán wǒguó zàixiàn jiàoxué móshì chuàngxīn yǔ jīngyàn fēnxiǎng [From the response to the epidemic crisis to talk about China’s online teaching model innovation and experience sharing]. China University Teaching, 7, 42–46.
  85. Xue, X., & Dunham, R. E. (2021). Using a SPOC-based flipped classroom instructional mode to teach English pronunciation. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(7), 1309–1337. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1980404
  86. Yang, J. C., Quadir, B., Chen, N.-S., & Miao, Q. (2016). Effects of online presence on learning performance in a blog-based online course. The Internet and Higher Education, 30, 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.04.002
  87. Yang, Y.-T. C., Chuang, Y.-C., Li, L.-Y., & Tseng, S.-S. (2013). A blended learning environment for individualized English listening and speaking integrating critical thinking. Computers & Education, 63, 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.12.012
  88. Zhang, R. (2020). Exploring blended learning experiences through the community of inquiry framework. Language, Learning and Technology, 24(1), 38–53.
  89. Zhang, X.-M., Yu, J.-Y., Yang, Y., Feng, C.-P., Lyu, J., & Xu, S.-L. (2019). A flipped classroom method based on a small private online course in physiology. Advances in Physiology Education, 43(3), 345–349. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00143.2018